Arabic Printing in Transoxiana and Russia

The Muslim peoples subjugated by the Russian Empire historically utilized printing as a vital tool to preserve their religion, cultural heritage, and national identity. Among these communities, a deep reverence for books transformed into both a religious motive and a form of cultural resistance, born directly out of imperial oppression and systemic injustice.

To counter this, Arabic printing centers multiplied rapidly, eventually spanning most capitals of the occupied provinces. While the scope of Arabic books printed under Russian rule was restricted primarily to the religious sciences and underlying Arabic linguistic disciplines, they were deeply cherished and widespread among the general Ahl al-Sunnah wal-Jama’ah (Sunni majority).

Muslims relied on these texts as a defensive shield to protect their customs, traditions, and way of life against the relentless efforts of state officials and the Orthodox Church, who used all administrative, political, economic, social, and educational tactics—alongside forced proselytization—to assimilate Muslim populations.

The Historical Beginnings of Arabic Printing in Russia

The earliest known instance of Arabic printing in Russia was a manifesto issued by Tsar Peter I on February 11, 1711, intended to justify his military campaign against Turkey. Later, the Tsar carried a mobile printing press during his campaign against Iran; however, this press was used only once, to print a manifesto issued on July 15, 1722.

In 1723, this mobile press was decommissioned. Its equipment and Arabic typefaces were transferred to Moscow and handed over to the “Synod” press—the supreme governing body of the Orthodox Church. A portion of these Arabic typefaces was subsequently given to the Academy of Sciences press in St. Petersburg.

Throughout the entire 18th century, these early Arabic characters were used exclusively to print Tsarist decrees, official documents, and placards for state occasions.

At the close of the century, Napoleon Bonaparte would repeat this exact strategy, bringing his own printing press alongside his invading troops to Egypt. In the eyes of both conquerors, the printing press was treated strictly as an instrument of war, utterly devoid of any true cultural or intellectual vision.

Catherine II and the First Printed Quran (1787)

The first complete book printed in the Arabic language in Russia was the Holy Quran, published in 1787 with the authorization of Empress Catherine II, who permitted the establishment of private printing presses.

Among the successful pioneering printers of this era was Schnoor of St. Petersburg, who contracted with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1785 to publish books in Eastern languages. Schnoor reprinted the Quran repeatedly without indicating the date, location, or the number of copies. However, historical researchers believe these specific editions were printed in the years 1789 (or 1790), 1793, 1796, and 1798.

The Rise of the Kazan University Press

The Muslims of Kazan were deeply inspired by the Quran prints coming out of St. Petersburg, which sparked a desire to print the holy text locally. In 1797, a low-ranking officer named Abu al-Ghazi Burashev petitioned the Tsar for permission to establish a local printing press, but his initial request was rejected.

Undeterred, Burashev repeated his request multiple times with the backing of his compatriots until he finally secured imperial permission in 1800 under harsh conditions:

• The press was mandated to print religious books exclusively.
• All publications were subjected to strict, ongoing state censorship.
• The majority of the revenue had to come from selling books directly to government administrations.

Burashev went on to establish the “Tatar Printing Press.” This press endured for decades, changed hands several times, and produced over a million copies of various Arabic books. The first fruits of this endeavor appeared in 1801, when Abu al-Ghazi Burashev issued a small number of books in Tatar and Arabic, followed by the Holy Quran. Soon after, the press’s output expanded dramatically, met eagerly by communities thirsty for the Quran and religious knowledge.

Over time, this press became renowned under numerous names, including the Tatar, Turkish, Alexandrian, Gymnasium, Asian (Axiatskoye), Sultani, Imperial, and State Press. However, its most famous title remains the “Kazan University Press.”

The late scholar Dr. Anas Khalidov calculated that this institution printed 321 distinct titles. Additionally, it printed the complete Holy Quran in 51 editions, published individual parts (Juz) of it 110 times, and copies of this scripture reached most corners of the Islamic world, becoming widely celebrated as the “Kazani Quran.”

Kazan as the Capital of Islamic Printing

Consequently, the printing of Islamic Arabic books shifted decisively from St. Petersburg to Kazan. Kazan was no longer just a famous historical Islamic center and the capital of the Republic of Tatarstan; it became the undisputed capital of Islamic printing across the Russian Empire for over a century.

Because the Kazan publications yielded substantial commercial profits, many Russian Christians established printing presses, as Muslims were rarely permitted to own the physical printing houses. Despite this systemic restriction, the vast majority of those who commissioned, funded, and managed the publication of these books were Muslims. They produced them entirely at their own expense, just as the printing house workers, book buyers, and readers were exclusively Muslim.

Printing and Censorship Under Imperial Occupation

From its inception in the final quarter of the 18th century until the revolution of 1905, the printing of Islamic books in Russia operated under the strict, obstinate scrutiny of Russian censors who were openly biased toward their empire and church.

Furthermore, the city of Kazan itself served as a central hub for Orthodox Christian missionary work and forced baptism campaigns. Christian missionaries continuously competed with and plotted against Islamic book publishers, reporting them to high-ranking state officials and even to the Tsar himself, all while receiving financial and structural aid from the authorities.

This friction between Tatar Muslims and Russian Christians paved the way for increased publishing activities on both sides, leading to the rise of polemical debate books. However, the Muslims’ profound eagerness for literature in the face of Tsarist oppression ultimately caused Islamic books to be far greater in number and wider in circulation.

Geographical Distribution of Arabic Presses

To help researchers track the spread of Islamic literature, the historical distribution of these printing houses can be broken down by region:

1. Tatarstan (The Republic of Tatarstan)

In addition to the Kazan University Press, numerous private printing houses were established in Kazan:

• The Press of Ludwig Shevits: A craftsman of Dutch origin who settled in Kazan. At the request of local Muslims, he published 45 books between 1841 and 1848 before selling it to Kokovin. It was later acquired by Zhirkov.
• The Shahi Yakhin Lithographic Press: Issued four books in 1844 before being acquired by Muhammad Wali Yakhin, who printed 19 publications between 1859 and 1869. Ownership later transferred to Ibrahim Abdullah until 1882.
• The Rahimjan Saidov Press: Issued various books between 1845 and 1850.
• The Vyacheslav Press: Operated from 1882 until 1894, after which it was transferred to Dombrovsky (Dombrauski).
• The Karimiyyah Press: This prominent house issued 72 books. Starting from 1901, it printed 14 editions of the complete Holy Quran and published separate portions of it 24 times.
• Other notable presses: Biberov, Antonov, Ilyas, Omid, “Ornek”, Bayan al-Haq, Zhirov, Sharaf, Central, Al-Ma’arif, “Millat”, Kazakov, Varksin, Yeremeyev & Shashabrin, Kokobin, and the Kharitonov Press (which held the honor of printing the Holy Quran with a page-for-page parallel Russian translation in 1907).

2. Uzbekistan

• Tashkent: The Lakhtin, Arifjanov, Burtsev, Kaminsky, Turkestan General Staff, Ilyin, Breindenbach, Pevtsov, Gulistan Shash, and Al-Mustafawi presses.
• Samarkand: The Taimuriyyah and Demurov presses.
• Bukhara: The Bukharai Sharif, Dar al-Saltanah, Azimi Hasan, and al-Haj Shams al-Din Muhammad al-Azimi Marghinani presses.
• Kagan (New Bukhara): The Kagan Press, the Kisissky & Bendetsky Press, and the Kaminsky Press.

3. Bashkiria

• Ufa: The Sharq (East) Press.
• Orenburg: The “Deen va Ma’ishat” (Religion and Livelihood) Press, the Muhammad Fateh bin Ghilman Karimov Press, and the Husainov, Karimov, and “Waqt” presses.
• Troitsk: The Energetika Press.
• Miass: The Bashkiriyyah Press.

4. Crimea & Dagestan

• Bakhchisaray: The “Terjuman” (Translator) Press, also known as the Ismail Mirza Gasprinsky Press.
• Temir-Khan-Shura (Historical Capital of Dagestan): The Islamic Press owned by Muhammad Mirza Mavayev (The Mavayev Press).
• Khasavyurt: The Mikhailov Press and the New Islamic Press.

5. Ukraine & Russia Proper

• Ukraine (Petrovsk & Simferopol): The Mikhailov and Yakubovich presses.
• St. Petersburg: The Academy of Sciences Press (The Imperial Academic Press), Schnoor, Senate, Ivan Seleznev, the Islamic Press (The Boragansky Press), the Abdurreshid Ibrahim Press, Maksutov, Evstifeev, and “Kopeyka” presses.
• Moscow: The Bauman, Gribek, and Moscow University presses.

Philanthropy: Funding the Dissemination of Knowledge

The vast majority of Qurans and books printed during this era in Russia were published entirely at the expense of independent benefactors seeking the pleasure of Allah Almighty (Hisbatan lillah). Women actively participated alongside men in financing this cultural preservation.

The Historiographical Legacy of Dr. Anas Khalidov

This invaluable historical data would never have reached the contemporary reader if not for the monumental, lifelong efforts of the renowned researcher and scholar, Professor Dr. Anas Khalidov (1929–2001).

Born in Tatarstan, Dr. Khalidov held a doctorate in Arabic literature and served as the Head of the Near East Department at the Institute of Oriental Studies in St. Petersburg, under the Russian Academy of Sciences.

In 1995, he contributed to a landmark seminar at the Juma Al Majid Centre in Dubai with his research paper, “Arabic Printing in Transoxiana and Russia.” Later, in 2008, his monumental bibliographical masterwork was published posthumously: “A Guide to Arabic Publications in Russia from 1787 to 1917.”

His extensive research was based on a comprehensive physical survey of the holdings and catalogs of two premier libraries in St. Petersburg: the National Library and the library of the Institute of Oriental Studies. Through his direct shelf-surveys, he discovered dozens of uncataloged volumes missing from official registries, systematically cataloging each book by answering fourteen precise criteria, including author timelines, alternative titles, publishers, and exact printing editions.

Original Article: Arabic Printing in Transoxiana and Russia — IslamOnline

By Muhammad Sa’id al-Mallah