How Did the Prophet Muhammad Deal with the Culture of His Time?

The term “culture” is one of the most widely circulated terms in the global arena in this era, and people approach it with conflicting views. Each group attributes a different meaning to it and employs it in a different field according to its religious affiliation or intellectual inclination. This makes it essential for us to clarify its meaning through our legal constants (thawabit) and Islamic principles.

To answer the question of how Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him and his family, dealt with the culture of his time, this presentation is divided into the following sections:

• Preliminary Topic: Definition of Culture and Its Types
• First Topic: The Prophet’s Handling of Destructive Cultures
• Second Topic: The Prophet’s Handling of Constructive Cultures
• Third Topic: The Prophet’s Handling of Cultures Wavering Between Destruction and Construction

Preliminary Topic: Definition of Culture and Its Types

The word “culture” (thaqafah) is one of the authentic Arabic terms with a tangible presence in linguistic lexicons. To clarify it, we must examine the linguistic root of this word. In this regard, Ibn Faris states:

“(Tha-Qa-Fa) The letters Thaa, Qaaf, and Fa’ form a single root to which branches return. It means straightening something crooked. It is said: ‘Thaqaftu al-qana’ (I straightened the spear) when you straighten its curvature. It was said:

‘The skilled craftsman looked at the joints of his spear,

Until his straightening corrected its flexibility.’

And ‘Thaqahtu hadha al-kalam min flan’ (I grasped this speech accurately from so-and-so). A man is described as thaqif laqif, meaning he acquires knowledge of what he hears accurately. It is also said: ‘Thaqahtu bihi’ (I seized/captured him), as in His saying: ‘Cursed wherever they are found [thuqifu], they are seized and massacred completely’ [Al-Ahzab: 61], and in His saying: ‘And kill them wherever you find them [thuqiftumuhum]’ [Al-Baqarah: 191], and also: ‘So if you gain mastery over them [tathqafannahum] in war, disperse by [means of] them those who are behind them that perhaps they will remember’ [Al-Anfal: 57].

If it is asked: What is the aspect of proximity between this and the first? It is said to him: When one captures something, has he not grasped and held it? Similarly, the one who triumphs over something holds it. Thus, the analogy for both usages is one.”

From Ibn Faris’s statement, it is understood that the root “tha-qa-fa” revolves around three meanings:

1. Straightening something: Meaning correcting the curvature of something, which relates to physical matters.
2. Understanding and comprehending something correctly: Which relates to abstract or conceptual matters.
3. Seizing and mastering something: Which appears in the aforementioned Qur’anic verses.

As for its terminological definition, we do not find it in traditional Islamic heritage because it was not a circulated term among them. What exists in the contemporary era is purely an influence of Western culture. It has been defined in several ways, including the definition by Professor Malik bin Nabi, who stated:

“A set of moral traits and social values that an individual encounters from birth as primary capital in the environment in which they were born. Culture, in this sense, is the environment in which the individual shapes their habits and personality.”

According to this definition, culture encompasses everything that contributes to an individual’s personality in both material and moral aspects, covering all that one receives from the society in which they live. These values serve as capital in the individual’s life with which they venture forth to trade.

However, the most important definition in my view is that of the Arabic Language Academy, which is:

“The sum total of sciences, knowledge, and arts in which proficiency is sought.”

This is a comprehensive definition that includes the sciences, crafts, and arts that shape an individual’s personality, regardless of its legal ruling. This is the definition I will adopt as an operational definition of culture in this presentation.

Regarding its classification, culture is categorized according to what it is attributed to. It may be a religious culture—whether Islamic, Jewish, Christian, Buddhist, and so on. It may be ethnic, such as Arab, Amazigh, or Persian culture. It may be regional, specific to a particular geographical space, such as African culture; or temporal, such as Greek or Andalusian culture. Attributing culture to a religion or anything else does not mean it must be entirely rejected. In fact, the reality of the Prophetic biography (Sirah) refutes this. Through tracking the Prophetic guidance, culture can be divided into three categories: destructive culture, constructive culture, and culture wavering between destruction and construction.

First Topic: The Prophet’s Handling of Destructive Cultures

Anyone who traces the guidance of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, will find that he was firm in rejecting any culture that destroys religion and invalidates its principles, whether concerning the foundations of religion, its branches, or its manners. Examples of this include:

1. Reading Previous Scriptures

There is no doubt that the message of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, completed the messages of the prophets before him. All of them came with Islam and called to monotheism (Tawhid), in accordance with His saying:

‘And We sent not before you any messenger except that We revealed to him that, “There is no deity except Me, so worship Me”‘ [Al-Anbiya: 25],

and His saying:

‘And We certainly sent into every nation a messenger, [saying], “Worship God and avoid Taghut (false deities)”‘ [An-Nahl: 36].

This is clarified by the Sunnah. Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said:

“My example and the example of the prophets before me is like that of a man who built a building, made it fine and beautiful, and people began to walk around it saying, ‘We have never seen a building more beautiful than this, except for this brick.’ So I am that brick.”

Thus, the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, is the Seal of the Prophets, and his legislation abrogates all previous legislations. How could it not be so, when Allah the Exalted took the covenant and pledge from the prophets before him that if they witnessed him, they would follow him? Read, if you wish, His saying:

‘And [recall] when Allah took the covenant of the prophets, [saying], “Whatever I give you of the Scripture and wisdom and then there comes to you a messenger confirming what is with you, you must believe in Him and support Him.” [Allah] said, “Have you acknowledged and taken upon that My commitment?” They said, “We have acknowledged it.” He said, “Then bear witness, and I am with you among the witnesses. And whoever turned away after that – then those are the defiantly disobedient.”‘ [Al-‘Imran: 81–82].

Whoever contemplates this Qur’anic text realizes the extent of Allah’s strictness regarding following the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him. This is understood from calling it a covenant and pledge, Allah making Himself a witness to this covenant along with the prophets—who are the elite of His creation—and then declaring that turning away from the requirements of this covenant is disobedience (fisq).

Since this is the status of the legislation, its Book is likewise dominant over previous scriptures. The lawful is what it permitted, the unlawful is what it prohibited, the decisive is what it established, and the abrogated is what it removed. Allah the Exalted said:

‘And We have revealed to you, [O Muhammad], the Book in truth, confirming that which preceded it of the Scripture and as a criterion over it.’ [Al-Ma’idah: 48].

In light of this, we find that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, prohibited anything that compromises this principle, forbidding the examination of previous scriptures. Jabir ibn Abdullah reported that Umar ibn al-Khattab brought a book he had obtained from some of the People of the Book to the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, and read it to him. The Prophet became angry and said:

“Are you in confusion about it, O son of Al-Khattab? By the One in Whose hand is my soul, I have brought it to you white and pure. Do not ask them about anything, lest they tell you something true and you disbelieve it, or something false and you believe it. By the One in Whose hand is my soul, if Musa (Moses), peace be upon him, were alive, he would have no choice but to follow me.”

The reason for this prohibition goes back to two matters:

• First: They were abrogated by the Noble Qur’an.
• Second: They had been subjected to extensive distortion, as attested by Qur’anic texts, Prophetic traditions, and historical facts.

This is not contradicted by what was mentioned in the story of stoning. Nafi’ reported that Abdullah ibn Umar informed him that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, was brought a Jewish man and woman who had committed adultery. The Prophet went until he came to the Jews and said:

“What do you find in the Torah regarding one who commits adultery?”

They said, “We blacken their faces, carry them, make their faces face opposite directions, and parade them around.”

He said, “Bring the Torah if you are truthful.”

They brought it and read it until the reader placed his hand over the verse of stoning and read what came before and after it. Abdullah ibn Salam—who was with the Messenger of Allah—said to him, “Order him to lift his hand.” He lifted it, and underneath it was the verse of stoning. So the Messenger of Allah ordered that both of them be stoned, and Abdullah ibn Umar said: “I was among those who stoned them, and I saw him protecting her from the stones with his own body.”

This incident is understood as enforcing a previous legislation that remains decisive in our law.

2. Magic and Divination

Magicians and soothsayers held prestige among the Arabs, and indeed among other civilized nations, especially the Egyptians, where they formed the upper class of scholars. This is the nuance in their addressing Moses as a “magician,” in the words of Allah the Exalted:

‘And they said, “O you magician, invoke for us your Lord by what He has covenanted with you. Indeed, we will be guided.”‘ [Az-Zukhruf: 49].

Ibn Kathir stated:

“Meaning: the scholar. This was stated by Ibn Jarir. The scholars of their time were the magicians, and magic was not blameworthy in their time. This was not said by them by way of belittling him, because the situation was one of necessity that did not suit that; rather, it was a form of aggrandizement in their view.”

Thus, the Egyptians did not intend insult to Moses, peace be upon him—even though their denial of his message was the greatest insult. Similar to the magician is the soothsayer (kahin), who claims knowledge of the unseen. There is no clearer evidence of this than Pharaoh killing the male children of the Children of Israel based on the advice of soothsayers.

If this was the status of the magician and soothsayer among the Children of Israel, what about their standing among the Arabs, a nation living in Bedouin life and on the margins of history? We can discern this through two incidents close to the time of the prophetic mission:

• First: Abdul-Muttalib’s dispute with Quraysh over the Zamzam well before the soothsayer of Banu Sa’d (a famous story).
• Second: Abdul-Muttalib seeking the judgment of a female diviner (arrafah) regarding the sacrifice of his son Abdullah in fulfillment of his vow.

How did the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, deal with this entrenched culture in Arab society? The answer is that his methodology was that of the Qur’an, which settled the matter regarding this culture. It ruled that magic is disbelief (kufr), as He stated:

‘And they followed what the devils recited during the reign of Sulayman. Sulayman was not a disbeliever, but the devils disbelieved, teaching people magic and that which was revealed to the two angels at Babylon, Harut and Marut. But the two do not teach anyone unless they say, “We are a trial, so do not disbelieve [by practicing magic].”‘ [Al-Baqarah: 102].

It established that no one knows the unseen except Allah the Exalted, as He stated:

‘Say, “None in the heavens and earth knows the unseen except Allah, and they do not perceive when they will be resurrected.”‘ [An-Naml: 65].

And it established the misguidance of soothsayers and magicians in His saying:

‘Have you not seen those who were given a portion of the Scripture, believing in sorcery (jibt) and false deities (taghut) and saying about the disbelievers, “These are better guided than the believers as to the way”? Those are the ones whom Allah has cursed; and he whom Allah curses – you will never find for him a helper.’ [An-Nisa: 51–52].

“Jibt” was interpreted as magic and divination. Umar ibn al-Khattab interpreted jibt as magic, and Al-Sha’bi stated it is the soothsayer. Thus, part of what made them deserving of the curse was their belief in jibt.

Consequently, the Sunnah came to confirm this ruling. Magic was counted among the seven destructive sins. Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said:

“Avoid the seven destructive sins.”

They said, “O Messenger of Allah, what are they?”

He said, “Associating partners with Allah (shirk), magic, killing a soul which Allah has forbidden except by right, consuming orphans’ wealth, consuming usury (riba), fleeing on the day of battle, and slandering chaste, innocent, believing women.”

Seeking the help of soothsayers was made a blemish on Tawhid. Abu Hurairah and Al-Hasan reported from the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, that he said:

“Whoever goes to a soothsayer or a diviner and believes what he says has disbelieved in what was revealed to Muhammad.”

And Safiyyah reported from some of the wives of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, that he said:

“Whoever goes to a diviner and asks him about something and believes him, his prayer will not be accepted for forty days.”

3. Festivals

Festivals are among the most important cultural manifestations that distinguish every nation. For this reason, the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, prohibited the pre-Islamic Jahiliyyah festivals. Anas ibn Malik, may Allah be pleased with him, reported:

“The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, came to Madinah, and they had two days in which they played. He said, ‘What are these two days?’ They said, ‘We used to play in them during Jahiliyyah.’ The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, ‘Indeed, Allah has replaced them for you with something better than them: the Day of Adha and the Day of Fitr.’“

From Aishah’s narration, the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said:

“Indeed, every people has a festival, and this day is our festival.”

Indeed, we find that he forbade making vows—which is a noble act of worship—if performing them resembled the disbelievers in their Jahiliyyah festivals. Thabit ibn al-Dahhak reported:

“A man made a vow during the time of the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, to slaughter camels at Buwanah. He came to the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, and said, ‘I have vowed to slaughter camels at Buwanah.’ The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, asked, ‘Was there any idol from the idols of Jahiliyyah worshipped there?’ They said, ‘No.’ He asked, ‘Was there any of their festivals held there?’ They said, ‘No.’ The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, ‘Fulfill your vow, for there is no fulfillment of a vow in disobedience to Allah, nor in what a human being does not own.’“

In short, the guidance of the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, was to dismantle any culture that involves demolishing the constants and foundations of the nation.

Second Topic: The Prophet’s Handling of Constructive Cultures

While the stance of the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, was firm against any culture destructive to the nation’s foundations, we find him taking a completely opposite approach toward whatever serves religion. We found him eager to employ such cultural elements, and even imbue them with an Islamic character that distinguished them from all other nations. This is evident through the following examples:

1. Adopting a Signet Ring (Seal)

After the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, entered into a truce with Quraysh following the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and achieved a great political victory by extracting an implicit recognition of his state from Quraysh, he turned his attention to the surrounding world to dispatch his messengers outside the Arabian Peninsula, carrying letters calling to Islam and commanding submission to this nascent state.

When he intended to send messengers, some of his companions discussed the matter with him, pointing out that his letters lacked a seal, whereas states were accustomed to sealing their correspondence. This is what Anas ibn Malik reported:

“The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, wrote a letter—or intended to write one—and it was said to him, ‘They do not read a letter unless it is sealed.’ So he took a silver ring, on which was engraved: ‘Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah.’ As if I am looking at its whiteness in his hand.”

Thus, you see that he did not oppose this international custom and saw fit to adopt it because it was a constructive culture, but at the same time, he molded it to suit the Muhammadan Sunnah, so its engraving was: “Muhammad the Messenger of Allah.”

Anas reported:

When Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him, was appointed caliph, he sent him to Bahrain and wrote him this letter, sealing it with the ring of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him. The engraving of the ring was three lines: ‘Muhammad’ on a line, ‘Rasul’ (Messenger) on a line, and ‘Allah’ on a line.”

We can note two observations here:

• First: It was imbued with an Islamic character, as indicated by the testimony of prophethood.
• Second: It was in the Arabic language, unlike what we find in some Muslim countries today, where some officials sign sovereign decisions in foreign alphabets.

2. Tools of Warfare

Anyone who traces the biography of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, notes that he was innovative in military matters, continually surprising his enemy with military methods they were unaccustomed to. Among these was his use of the formation (saff) method in the Battle of Badr. Examples in this regard are numerous; what concerns us here is his openness to the culture of others, which is manifested in two situations:

• First: What happened in the Battle of the Confederates (Ahzab) when Madinah was besieged by a coalition of Arab tribes from Quraysh, Ghatafan, and their allies. When the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, received news of them, he consulted the people. Salman said, “O Messenger of Allah, when we were in the land of Persia and were besieged, we used to dig trenches around us.” The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, adopted this Persian strategy and had no hesitation in implementing it, making it one of the most important factors of victory.
• Second: After the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, conquered Makkah, the Arabs were divided into two groups regarding him: a group that submitted to his authority, and a group seized by Jahiliyyah pride who refused to submit to a prophet from Quraysh. This led to the Battle of Hunayn, followed by the siege of Ta’if. The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, recognizing the nature of the stage, sent Urwah ibn Masud and Ghilan ibn Salamah to Jurash to learn the craft of building tanks, catapults (manjaniq), and battering rams (dabbabat), which were siege tools that Quraysh had not been accustomed to in their wars.

3. Diplomatic Norms

The Arabs and other nations were familiar with certain diplomatic cultural norms. We find that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, accepted some of them, guided by the principle that these were cultures that build and serve the values he came calling for, especially fulfilling covenants and avoiding treachery. This is clearly shown in what Nu’aym ibn Masud al-Ashja’i narrated:

“I heard the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, saying to the two messengers when they read the letter of Musaylamah: ‘What do you both say?’ They said, ‘We say what he said.’ He said, ‘By Allah, were it not that messengers are not killed, I would have struck off your heads.’“

Thus, you see that the Messenger of Allah did not apply the ruling of apostasy to the two men, despite the gravity of their crime and their audacity toward the station of prophethood. All of this was out of respect for this diplomatic norm regarding the treatment of envoys.

4. Dealing with Foreign Languages

The message of Islam is a universal message, which necessitates communicating with other nations in their languages to establish the proof and manifest the clear truth. We find that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, gave attention to certain languages. Among this is what Zaid ibn Thabit reported:

“The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, commanded me to learn for him the writing of the Jews, saying, ‘By Allah, I do not trust the Jews regarding my writing.’ He said: Not even half a month passed until I learned it for him. He said: When I learned it, whenever he wrote to the Jews I wrote to them, and when they wrote to him I read their letters for him.”

Reflect on how he opened up to the language of the Jews—who were his bitterest enemies—because of the immense interests and sweeping benefits this brought to the Muhammadan nation. Furthermore, we find the Arab Messenger of Allah speaking a non-Arabic language in a unique incident in the Sunnah (to the best of my knowledge), intended to make a young girl understand who was taught something other than the Arabic tongue. Um Khalid bint Khalid reported:

“The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, was brought garments containing a small black Khamisah (garment). He said, ‘Who do you think we should dress with this?’ The people remained silent. He said, ‘Bring me Um Khalid.’ She was brought carried. He took the Khamisah in his hand, dressed her in it, and said, ‘Abali wa akhliqi’ (May you wear it out and replace it with new). There were green or yellow markings on it. He said, ‘O Um Khalid, this is sanah.’ And sanah in Abyssinian means: beautiful.”

However, it must be noted that this openness is conditional upon not disrupting the status of the Arabic language, because the language of every nation is the soul of its culture. This is what broke down in the reality of Muslims today when they lost their language and immersed themselves in the culture of others. Indeed, some Muslims have begun to take pride in non-Arabic tongues, and these defeated individuals possess a susceptibility to colonization, as Professor Malik bin Nabi, may Allah have mercy on him, stated.

Third Topic: The Prophet’s Handling of Cultures Wavering Between Construction and Destruction

There are certain cultures that do not lean completely to one side, and thus they cannot be strictly classified as purely destructive or purely constructive in absolute terms, but rather depending on what they lead to. Therefore, we find that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, was cautious in dealing with them. We find him adopting them in one form rather than another: he practiced them when they achieved preponderant interests and suspended them if their corruption outweighed their benefit. This can be clarified through the following examples:

1. Standing for Respect

Islamic legislation dismantled all forms of glorification that contradict Tawhid, prohibiting standing for anyone other than Allah the Exalted, in reverence to His saying:

‘Maintain with care the prayers and [in particular] the middle prayer and stand before Allah, devoutly obedient.’ [Al-Baqarah: 238].

We find the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, in numerous instances, forbidding standing if it was done by way of glorification (ta’dhim). Among these is what Abu Majliz reported:

“Muawiyah came out, and Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr and Ibn Safwan stood up when they saw him. He said, ‘Sit down; I heard the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, say: “Whoever is pleased that men should stand up for him [in glorification], let him take his seat in the Fire.”‘”

Indeed, it is authentically reported that he forbade them at first from standing behind him in prayer when he prayed sitting down due to an illness that afflicted him. Jabir reported:

“The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, fell sick, so we prayed behind him while he was sitting, and Abu Bakr was making the people hear his takbir. He turned to us and saw us standing, so he signaled to us and we sat down. We prayed sitting alongside his prayer. When he gave the salam, he said, ‘You just now almost did what the Persians and Romans do: they stand before their kings while the kings are sitting. Do not do that; follow your imams. If he prays standing, then pray standing; and if he prays sitting, then pray sitting.’“

What is noticeable in these and other reports is that the prohibition is centered on the cause of glorification (ta’dhim) for other than Allah the Exalted. This is proven by the fact that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, instituted and approved standing through his action and approval during the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah amidst negotiations between him and Quraysh. In the narration:

“Urwah ibn Masud stood up… and began speaking to the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him. Whenever he spoke, he grasped his beard, while Al-Mughirah ibn Shu’bah was standing at the head of the Prophet with a sword and wearing a helmet. Whenever Urwah reached out his hand toward the beard of the Prophet, Al-Mughirah struck his hand with the hilt of the sword and said to him, ‘Keep your hand away from the beard of the Messenger of Allah.'”

Observe how he, peace and blessings be upon him, approved his companions standing around him because the objective here was to terrorize and subdue the enemy. Thus, he benefited from this cultural practice in strengthening the Muslims’ position.

This is what the Companions, may Allah be pleased with them, understood and applied properly. It is authentically reported that when Umar ibn al-Khattab, may Allah be pleased with him, went to Sham and saw Muawiyah, may Allah be pleased with him, in a procession coming to greet him, Umar said to him, “O Muawiyah, you ride in a procession and go about in another like it, and it has reached me that you wake up in your house while those with needs are at your door?” Muawiyah replied, “O Commander of the Faithful, the enemy is close to us here, and they have spies and scouts. I wanted, O Commander of the Faithful, for them to see the might of Islam.” Umar said, “This is the cunning of a clever man, or the trick of a shrewd man.”

Observe how the Commander of the Faithful, Umar, approved his governor Muawiyah for those processions that were not devoid of soldiers standing with their weapons while surrounding the rulers, because the objective was to subdue and terrorize the enemy.

2. Image-Making (Taswir)

Image-making is one of the oldest cultural arts, and Prophetic texts have consistently prohibited it. Among these is what is authentically reported by Sa’id ibn Abi al-Hasan, who said:

I was with Ibn Abbas, may Allah be pleased with them, when a man came to him and said, ‘O Abu Abbas, I am a man whose livelihood is from the work of my hands, and I make these images.’ Ibn Abbas said, ‘I will only tell you what I heard the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, say. I heard him say: “Whoever makes an image, Allah will punish him until he breathes a soul into it, and he will never be able to breathe a soul into it.” The man swelled with a great swell and his face turned yellow, and [Ibn Abbas] said, ‘Woe to you! If you must persist, then make trees, everything that has no soul.'”

This hadith indicates the prohibition of depicting living beings, and its apparent meaning indicates a general prohibition of images, whether 3D or 2D. This is supported by what is authentically reported from Aishah, may Allah be pleased with her, who said:

“The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, entered upon me, and in the house was a curtain with images on it. His face changed color, then he reached for the curtain and tore it.” She said that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said: “Among the people most severely punished on the Day of Resurrection are those who make these images.”

From tracking the hadiths, the underlying reason (illah) for prohibiting image-making is emulation of Allah’s creation. The image-maker imitates the Creator, glorified be His majesty, in one of the most important attributes of His Lordship, which is creation/forming. This rationale is derived from the hadith of Abu Zur’ah, who said:

“I entered with Abu Hurairah into the house of Marwan, and he saw images in it. He said: I heard the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, say: ‘Allah the Exalted said: And who does more wrong than one who goes forth to create a creation like My creation? Let them create an atom, or let them create a grain of barley, or let them create a wheat grain.’“

This is supported by the concession (rukhsah) granted in image-making when this rationale is absent and it leads to a preponderant benefit. The most prominent example is the permissibility of children’s toys, because they involve training the child for adult roles. Aishah, may Allah be pleased with her, reported:

“The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, returned from the expedition of Tabuk or Khaybar, and in her alcove there was a curtain. A wind blew and lifted a corner of the curtain, revealing some dolls belonging to Aishah. He asked, ‘What is this, O Aishah?’ She said, ‘My daughters [dolls].’ He saw among them a horse with two wings made of rags. He asked, ‘What is this that I see in their midst?’ She said, ‘A horse.’ He asked, ‘And what is this on it?’ She said, ‘Two wings.’ He said, ‘A horse with two wings?!’ She said, ‘Haven’t you heard that Sulayman had horses with wings?’ She said: He laughed until I saw his molar teeth.”

Reflect on how the Messenger of Allah approved the Mother of the Believers playing with 3D figurines. The wisdom behind granting a concession in this cultural element is what it contains of educating and training the young girl in household matters. Al-Tayyib al-Azim Abadi stated:

“…And this is exempted from the general prohibition of making images, and Qadi Iyad was certain of this, transmitting it from the majority, that they permitted selling toys for girls to train them from childhood in managing their homes and children…”

3. Poetry and Rhetoric

The Arabs were an unlettered nation, predominantly lacking reading and writing skills, but this did not mean a lack of eloquence; rather, they were the most articulate of nations regarding the Arabic tongue.

They were known for composing poetry, and the poet held a powerful position in their gatherings. If he uttered a word during the day, riders would carry it across the land by night. Poets were largely characterized by lying and reporting things contrary to reality: the poet would elevate the lowly, debase the noble, slander the lineage, praise the ignoble, and say what he did not do. Allah the Exalted said:

‘And the poets – [only] the deviators follow them. Do you not see that they roam in every valley, And that they say what they do not do?’ [Ash-Shu’ara: 224–226].

When the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, was sent, he treated this prevalent culture with the antidote of the Shariah: he nullified what was false in it and approved what was true. Among what he dismantled was people’s preoccupation with poetry and obsession with its verses, prohibiting preoccupation with it when it came at the expense of the Qur’an and Sunnah. Ibn Umar, may Allah be pleased with them, reported from the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, that he said:

“For the belly of one of you to be filled with pus is better for him than to be filled with poetry.”

Thus, scholars interpreted the warning mentioned in the hadith. Abu Ubayd stated:

“Its meaning is that his heart becomes filled [with poetry] to the extent that it distracts him from the Qur’an and the remembrance of Allah. When the Qur’an and knowledge are dominant, then the belly of such a person is not considered filled with poetry in our view. And indeed, eloquence can be like magic.”

Likewise, the Prophet forbade any poetry containing what opposes the Shariah—such as disbelief, slander, and so on—and approved poetry that was true and correct. Ubayy ibn Ka’b reported that the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said:

“Indeed, in poetry there is wisdom.”

He encouraged poetry that supported the religion and belittled the religion of the polytheists. Aishah reported that the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said:

“Satirize Quraysh, for it is harder on them than shooting arrows.”

In the same manner was his approach toward rhetoric. The orator was the counterpart of the poet among the Arabs. It was customary that every tribe had a poet and an orator, who were two speaking tongues defending the tribe from every vice and attributing every virtue to it. For this reason, the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, compared rhetoric to magic. Ibn Umar reported:

“Two men came from the east and delivered speeches, whereupon the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said: ‘Indeed, eloquence (bayan) can be magic.’“

The reality of magic is illusion and turning something away from its apparent truth. Therefore, we find that the Messenger of Allah approved rhetoric when it was true and invalidated it when it was false. An example of this is what Abu Hurairah reported:

“The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, gave a judgment regarding two women from Hudhayl who fought, and one of them threw a stone at the other, hitting her abdomen while she was pregnant, killing her unborn child. They disputed before the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, and he ruled that the compensation (diyah) for the fetus is a ghurrah: a male or female slave. The guardian of the woman ordered to pay said, ‘O Messenger of Allah, how can I pay compensation for one who neither drank nor ate, neither spoke nor cried out, and such a thing is void?’ The Messenger of Allah said, ‘This is only from the brothers of soothsayers.’“

This man employed his rhetoric to support falsehood, twisting words to make falsehood appear in the guise of truth. The Prophet compared him to soothsayers because it is their habit to twist speech and embellish falsehood.

As for when rhetoric is employed in truth, this is what the Messenger of Allah approved, and its instances in the Sirah are numerous. Among them are the speech of Al-Abbas in Mina on the day of the Pledge of Aqabah, and the speech of Sa’ad ibn Mu’adh before the Battle of Badr. The evidences for this are numerous and well-known.

4. Musical Instruments (Ma’azif)

Music is one of the oldest human arts and a common culture among Arabs. An observer of the biography of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, finds that he generally distanced himself from this culture during his life. Whatever occurred otherwise is considered an exception to the rule. Indeed, strict warnings were reported regarding the prohibition of musical instruments. The strongest of what was reported is what is authentically reported from Abu Amir—or Abu Malik—al-Ash’ari, that he heard the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, say:

“There will surely be people among my nation who legalize illicit sexual intercourse, silk, wine, and musical instruments (ma’azif). And there will certainly dwell people alongside a mountain, with a herdsman coming to them in the evening with their livestock; a poor person will come to them for a need, and they will say, ‘Return to us tomorrow.’ Allah will destroy them during the night, cause the mountain to collapse upon them, and transform others into apes and swine until the Day of Resurrection.”

We are not here to discuss the exact basis (manat) of prohibition, as this is a matter debated by jurists, and their statements are well-known in their proper places. Rather, we intend to draw attention to the Prophet’s handling of this culture: he prohibited it by this text and others when it led to destroying the nation’s foundations and constants, which is inferred from the association of musical instruments with moral indecencies such as adultery and wine, and so on.

At the same time, we find him permitting it when it served as an instrument for building the nation—meaning when it led to a preponderant Shariah interest. This can be illustrated by two examples:

• First: Beating the Daff on Eid. Aishah reported that Abu Bakr entered upon her while the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, was with her on the day of Fitr or Adha, and there were two young slave girls with her singing about what the Ansar exchanged on the Day of Bu’ath. Abu Bakr said, “The flute of Satan,” repeating it twice. The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said: ‘Leave them, O Abu Bakr, for every people has a festival, and this day is our festival.’ Thus, you see how the Messenger of Allah approved this cultural practice on the Day of Eid, because celebrating Eid is part of what distinguishes the Islamic nation from others. This is inferred from the reasoning mentioned in the hadith: that every people has a festival, and this is the day of festival for the Muslims, so they should distinguish it from other days just as they distinguish themselves in their manner of celebration.
• Second: Beating the Daff at Weddings. Ibn Abbas reported that Aishah married off a female relative of hers from the Ansar, and the Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, came and asked: ‘Did you gift the girl?’ They said, “Yes.” He asked, ‘Did you send along with her someone who sings?’ She said, “No.” The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said: ‘Indeed, the Ansar are a people who love poetry; so would that you had sent along with someone who says: “We have come to you, we have come to you, so greet us and we will greet you.”‘

This is another model that clearly shows the implementation of the culture wavering between destruction and construction when it is utilized to build the nation. Here is the Messenger of Allah rebuking the Mother of the Believers for refraining from sending someone to sing with the bride. From this Prophetic guidance, it is understood that marriage should be distinguished from illicit relationships, and among the greatest things distinguishing it is announcing the marriage with singing and the daff, as famous in authentic hadiths.

Conclusion

It has become clear to us through this presentation that the term “culture” in its contemporary concept did not appear except in this era under the influence of Western culture. I chose to define it as the Arabic Language Academy defined it: “The sum total of sciences, knowledge, and arts in which proficiency is sought.”

It has also become evident to us that culture varies according to religion, ethnicity, time, and place, and that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, lived alongside multiple cultures in his life. We examined his methodology in dealing with them, and found him employing three approaches:

1. The first approach is rejection: This applies to any culture that destroys the nation’s constants and undermines its foundations.
2. The second approach is acceptance and imbuing with an Islamic character: This applies to any culture that leads to reinforcing the pillars of the nation.
3. The third approach is selective implementation: Implementing it in one sphere and discarding it in another, where the criterion for implementation or exclusion is whether it leads to a preponderant benefit (maslahah) or a preponderant harm (mafsadah).

By Rabie Laouar